Encapsulation of antioxidants with colloidal lipid particles for enhancing the photooxidation stability of phytosterol in Pickering emulsions.

In order to prevent the photooxidation of phytosterols, a new type of Pickering emulsion was developed by regulating the oriented distribution of antioxidants in colloidal lipid particles (CLPs) at the oil-water interface. High-melting-point and low-melting-point lipids were tested to modulate their protective effect against phytosterols photooxidation. Results showed that CLPs could stabilize Pickering emulsion and encapsulate antioxidants, providing a dual functional delivery system for phytosterols protection. The Pickering emulsion formed had a particle size of around 350-820 nm, and the crystallization and melting temperatures of tripalmitin particles were approximately 32 °C and 63.8 °C, respectively. The addition of tributyrin or tricaprylin reduced the crystallization and melting temperatures of Pal CLPs and improved the photooxidation emulsion stability. The prepared Pickering emulsion remained stable for a maximum of 12 days under accelerated light-induced oxidation. Among all formulations, the emulsion primarily composed of tripalmitin CLPs, with added tributyrin and resveratrol, exhibited the highest photooxidation stability.

Molecular dynamics simulations of the interfacial behaviors and photo-oxidation of phytosterol under different emulsion oil content.

Phytosterol, recognized for its health benefits, is predominantly extracted from plants and exhibits significantly reduced stability under varying light conditions. Their photooxidation is significantly influenced by emulsion interfaces. This study examined the mechanism of interface structure on phytosterol photooxidation with unparalleled molecular precision, utilizing molecular dynamics simulations and experimental procedures. Hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl group at the C3 position of phytosterols and water molecules, coupled with van der Waals forces between the hydrophobic regions and the oil phase, induced phytosterol molecules to disperse toward the interface. The elevated polarity of the oil phase, specifically in tributyrin, facilitated the permeation of water molecules into the oil phase. This was achieved by diminishing the emulsion's interfacial tension, thereby fostering the development of more interface or micelles, and accelerating the photooxidation process of phytosterols. These simulations unraveled that the preponderance of phytosterol distribution is localized and oxidized at the oil-water interface.

2 Year Wencheng Waxy Yam Pesticide Residue Investigation and Quality Evaluation.

Wencheng waxy yam is famous for its glutinous and resilient taste, similar to waxy rice, but there is currently a lack of systematic research on the quality of this featured product, and little is known about its pesticide residues. We carried out a 2 year investigation of Wencheng waxy yam at seven sites from 2021 to 2022 to determine the oxidase content and phytochemical characteristics, namely, amylose, amylopectin, protein, reducing sugar, and mineral contents, such as K, Fe, and Zn, including the status of pesticide residues. The results showed that the oxidase content was affected by rainfall, and adequate water reduced the production of oxidase, including polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase, during the late growth stage of waxy yam, which was beneficial for reducing browning in yam processing. Radar map analysis showed that, with comprehensive evaluation, standardized production sites 1 and 2 had a relatively higher quality than 3-7 with small farmers. The results of pesticide multiresidue testing showed that no pesticides were detected in 64.29% of the samples, and the detected residues in the samples were very low, making the consumption of yam safe for consumers. These findings could be beneficial for the exploitation of the health benefits of waxy yam tubers and the innovation of yam-based functional products.

Phytosterol organic acid esters: Characterization, anti-inflammatory properties and a delivery strategy to improve mitochondrial function.

Phytosterol organic acid esters are important food resources and the components of biomembrane structure. Due to the lack of extraction and synthesis techniques, more research has been focused on phytosterols, and the research on phytosterol acid esters have encountered a bottleneck, but phytosterol acid esters confer substantial benefits to human health. In this study, stigmasteryl vanillate (VAN), stigmasteryl protocatechuate (PRO) and stigmasteryl sinapate (SIN) were prepared through the Steglich reaction. The processes are promotable and the products reach up to 95% purity. In addition, their stability was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis. HPLC analysis revealed an enhancement in water solubility after esterification with phenolic acid. In an in vitro digestion model, the bioaccessibility of stigmasteryl phenolates was significantly higher than that of stigmasterols (STIs). Regarding the anti-inflammatory properties, VAN, PRO, and SIN exhibit superior effects against TNF-α induced pro-inflammatory responses compared to STI. All stigmasteryl phenolates supplementation increased the ATP production, the basal, and maximal oxygen consumption rate in mitochondrial stress test. Overall, we present a synthesis method for stigmasteryl phenolates. It will contribute to the development and research of phytosterol acid ester analysis, functions and utilization in food. Moreover, the nutrient-stigmasterol hybrids tactic we have constructed is practical and can become a targeted mitochondrial delivery strategy with enhanced anti-inflammatory effects.

Investigating the evolution of the fine structure in cassava starch during growth and its correlation with gelatinization performance.

The evolution of the starch fine structure during growth and its impact on the gelatinization behavior of cassava starch (CS) was investigated by isolating starch from South China 6068 (SC6068) cassava harvested from the 4th to 9th growth period. During growth, the short-range ordered structure, crystallinity as well as particle size distribution of starch were increased. Meanwhile, the starch molecular size and amylopectin (AP) proportion increased, while the proportion of amylose (AM) exhibited a decreasing tendency. The chains of short-AM (X ~ 100-1000) were mainly significantly reduced, whereas the short and medium-AP chains (X ~ 6-24) had the most increment in AP. The solubility, thermal stability, shear resistance, and retrogradation resistance of starch were enhanced after gelatinized under the influence of the results mentioned above. This study presented a deeper insight into the variation of starch fine structure during growth and its influence on gelatinization behavior, which would provide a theoretical basis for starch industrial applications.

Properties of Dietary Flavone Glycosides, Aglycones, and Metabolites on the Catalysis of Human Endoplasmic Reticulum Uridine Diphosphate Glucuronosyltransferase 2B7 (UGT2B7).

Flavone glycosides, their aglycones, and metabolites are the major phytochemicals in dietary intake. However, there are still many unknowns about the cellular utilization and active sites of these natural products. Uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) in the endoplasmic reticulum have gene polymorphism distribution in the population and widely mediate the absorption and metabolism of endogenous and exogenous compounds by catalyzing the covalent addition of glucuronic acid and various lipophilic chemicals. Firstly, we found that rutin, a typical flavone O-glycoside, has a stronger UGT2B7 binding effect than its metabolites. After testing a larger number of flavonoids with different aglycones, their aglycones, and metabolites, we demonstrated that typical dietary flavone O-glycosides generally have high binding affinities towards UGT2B7 protein, but the flavone C-glycosides and the phenolic acid metabolites of flavones had no significant effect on this. With the disposition of 4-methylumbelliferone examined by HPLC assay, we determined that 10 µM rutin and nicotifiorin could significantly inhibit the activity of recombinant UGT2B7 protein, which is stronger than isovitexin, vitexin, 3-hydroxyphenylacetic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. In addition, in vitro experiments showed that in normal and doxorubicin-induced lipid composition, both flavone O-glycosides rutin and flavone C-glycosides isovitexin at 10 µM had no significant effect on the expression of UGT1A1, UGT2B4, UGT2B7, and UGT2B15 genes for 24 h exposure. The obtained results enrich the regulatory properties of dietary flavone glycosides, aglycones, and metabolites towards the catalysis of UGTs and will contribute to the establishment of a precise nutritional intervention system based on lipid bilayers and theories of nutrients on endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria communication.

Interactions between dietary cholesterol and intestinal flora and their effects on host health.

The interactions between dietary cholesterol and intestinal microbiota strongly affect host health. In recent years, relevant studies have greatly advanced this field and need to be summarized to deepen the understanding of dietary cholesterol-intestinal microbiota interactions and their effects on host health. This review covers the most recent frontiers on the effects of dietary cholesterol on the intestinal microbiota and its metabolites, the metabolism of cholesterol by the intestinal microbiota, and the effects of the interactions on host health. Several animal-feeding studies reported that dietary cholesterol altered different intestinal microbiota in the body, while mainly causing alterations in intestinal microbial metabolites such as bile acids, short-chain fatty acids, and tryptophan derivatives. Alterations in these metabolites may be a novel mechanism mediating cholesterol-related diseases. The cholesterol microbial metabolite, coprostanol, has a low absorption rate and is excreted in the feces. Thus, microbial conversion of cholesterol-to-coprostanol may be an important way of cholesterol-lowering by the organism. Cholesterol-3-sulfate is a recently discovered microbial metabolite of cholesterol, mainly metabolized by Bacteroides containing the Bt_0416 gene. Its effects on host health have been preliminarily characterized and are mainly related to immune modulation and repair of the intestinal epithelium.

Catalytic efficiency and thermal stability promotion of the cassava linamarase with multiple mutations for better cyanogenic glycoside degradation.

In our previous study, we found that cassava cyanogenic glycosides had an acute health risk. Therefore, to solve this problem, the improvement of specific degradation of cyanogenic glycosides of cassava linamarase during processing is the key. In this study, the catalytic activity and thermal stability of enzymes were screened before investigating the degradation efficiency of cyanogenic glycosides with a cassava linamarase mutant K263P-T53F-S366R-V335C-F339C (CASmut) -controlled technique. The CASmut was obtained with the optimum temperature of 45 °C, which was improved by 10 °C. The specific activity of CASmut was 85.1 ± 4.6 U/mg, which was 2.02 times higher than that of the wild type. Molecular dynamics simulation analysis and flexible docking showed there were more hydrogen bonding interactions at the pocket, and the aliphatic glycoside of the linamarin was partially surrounded by hydrophobic residues. The optimum conditions of degradation reactions was screened with CASmut addition of 47 mg/L at 45 °C, pH 6.0. The CASmut combined with ultrasonication improved the degradation from 478.2 ± 10.4 mg/kg to 86.7 ± 7.4 mg/kg. Those results indicating the great potential of CASmut in applying in the cassava food or cyanogenic food. However, challenges in terms of the catalytic mechanism research is worthy of being noticed in further studies.

Spectrophotometric- and LC/MS-Based Lipidomics Analyses Revealed Changes in Lipid Profiles of Pike Eel (Muraenesox cinereus) Treated with Stable Chlorine Dioxides and Vacuum-Packed during Chilled Storage.

Spectrophotometric- and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS)-based lipidomics analyses were performed to explore the changes of lipid profiles in pike eel (Muraenesox cinereus) under stable chlorine dioxides (ClO2) and vacuum-packed treatment during chilled storage. The peroxide value (PV) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content in ClO2 treated and vacuum-packaged (VP) samples were significantly reduced compared to simple-packaged (SP) samples during whole chilled storage. The LC/MS-based lipidomics analyses identified 2182 lipid species in the pike eel muscle classified into 39 subclasses, including 712 triglycerides (TGs), 310 phosphatidylcholines (PCs), 153 phosphatidylethanolamines (PEs), and 147 diglycerides (DGs), among others. Further, in comparison with fresh pike eel (FE) muscle, 354 and 164 higher and 420 and 193 lower abundant levels of differentially abundant lipids (DALs) were identified in SP samples and VP samples, respectively. Compared with the VP batch, 396 higher and 404 lower abundant levels of DALs were identified in the SP batch. Among these, PCs, PEs, TGs, and DGs were more easily oxidized/hydrolyzed, which could be used as biomarkers to distinguish FE, SP, and VP samples. This research provides a reference for controlling lipid oxidation in fatty fish.

Asperuloside, the bioactive compound in the edible Eucommia ulmoides male flower, delays muscle aging by daf-16 mediated improvement in mitochondrial dysfunction.

Muscle aging is accompanied by a progressive decline in motor performance and mitochondrial function, yet fundamental treatments for this disorder remain sparse. The search for active compounds from natural dietary products that promote muscular health has attracted considerable interest. Although the male flowers of Eucommia ulmoides Oliv., an emerging resource of plant-based food, have healthspan-promoting efficacy, it's still unclear whether they or their main active compounds (iridoids) could improve muscle aging. We compared the effects of three iridoids on motion status during different aging processes in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Additionally, we further investigated the roles and mechanisms of the iridoid-rich floral extract (EUFE) and the most active monomer on nematode age-related muscle hypofunction exacerbated by high fat. We found that EUFE and asperuloside (Asp) significantly improved motility and muscular health and reduced lipid accumulation at appropriate concentrations. Compared to normal mitochondria against muscle disorder, Asp delayed the deterioration of mitochondrial function, morphology, or related metabolism during aging. Meanwhile, Asp regulated the mitochondrial quality control (MQC) network, mainly activating mitophagy, which was associated with increased mRNA and protein expression of lgg-1 and dct-1. Mechanistically, Asp promoted the expression and nuclear localization of the DAF-16 protein, an upstream regulator of the above two autophagy-related genes. The defective mutant and RNA interference further suggested that daf-16 mediated the ameliorative effects of Asp on muscle aging and mitochondrial dysfunction. These results provide potential evidence for the preventive application and functional food development of E. ulmoides male flowers and asperuloside against muscle aging.

Investigation of the mechanism of different 3D printing performance of starch and whole flour gels from tuber crops.

This study aims to reveal the variation in 3D printing performance of whole flour and starch gels as derived from different varieties of tuber crops including cassava, potato, and yam, along with its mechanism. The whole flour of the same tuber crops showed a higher branching degree, average molecular weight (R¯h), and the proportion of AM chains for 100 < X ≤ 1000 than its starch. Due to the higher degree of branching, the crystallinity of whole flour reached a higher level. In this circumstance, G2' of the dispersion system decreased, which facilitated smooth extrusion of ink from the nozzle, thus improving the precision of printing for the final product. Besides, a higher R¯h and the percentage of AM chains for 100 < X ≤ 1000 made it easier for the material to extrude, thus enhancing the printing accuracy of the product. The higher short-range ordered structure of whole flour also enhanced the printing performance of 3D printed products. This research contributes an effective solution to the selection of starch and whole flour for food 3D printing.

Acteoside palliates d-galactose induced cognitive impairment by regulating intestinal homeostasis.

Acteoside, an important phenylethanol glycoside, is the main active component in Osmanthus fragrans flower. Our previous study found that acteoside showed high antiaging effect but its absorption rate was low. We speculated acteoside palliated aging-related cognitive impairment before being absorbed, that was intestinal homeostasis underlie the antiaging effect of acteoside. In this study, acteoside was confirmed to palliate cognitive impairment in d-galactose induced aging mice. Acteoside treatment dramatically reduced oxidative stress, alleviated intestinal inflammation, restored intestinal mucosal barrier, rebuilt gut microbiome structure and upregulated gut microbiome metabolites short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and amino acids (AAs). Furthermore, antibiotic treatment revealed that the antiaging ability of acteoside was abolished in microbiota depleted mice, which offered direct evidence for the essential role of gut microbiota in the attenuation of cognitive impairment of acteoside. Together, our study indicated that acteoside palliated cognitive impairment by regulating intestinal homeostasisand acteoside intake might be a promising nutritional intervention in prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Single-Cell Transcriptomics Reveals the Difference of Aortic Atherosclerosis Response to Phytosterols and Oxidation Products of Sterols.

SCOPE: Phytosterols (PS) and sterol oxidation products are key dietary factors influencing atherosclerosis besides cholesterol, although the mechanisms remain elusive. Recently, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has revealed the heterogeneity of multiple cell types associated with complex pathogenesis in atherosclerosis development. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, scRNA-seq is performed to investigate the alterations in the aortic cells from ApoE-/- mice induced by diet-derived PS or two sterol oxidation products, phytosterols oxidation products (POPs), and cholesterol oxidation products (COPs). The study identifies four fibroblast subpopulations with different functions, and immunofluorescence demonstrates their spatial heterogeneity, providing evidence that suggests the transformation of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and fibroblasts in atherosclerosis. The composition and gene expression profiles of aortic cells change broadly in response to PS/COPs/POPs exposure. Notably, PS exhibits an atheroprotective effect where different gene expressions are mainly found in B cells. Exposure to COPs accelerates atherosclerosis and results in marked alternations in myofibroblast subpopulations and T cells, while POPs only alter fibroblast subpopulations and B cells. CONCLUSION: The data elucidate the effects of dietary PS/COPs/POPs on aortic cells during atherosclerosis development, especially on the newly identified fibroblast subpopulations.

Effects of Fermentation Process on the Antioxidant Capacity of Fruit Byproducts.

A substantial amount of fruit byproducts is lost annually due to lack of valorization applications at industrial scale, resulting in loss of valuable nutrients as well as immense economic consequences. Studies conducted clearly show that if appropriate and dependable methods are applied, there is the potential to acquire various components that are currently being obtained through synthetic manufacturing from fruit byproducts mostly regarded as waste and utilize them in not only the food industry, but pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as well. This review aims to provide a concise summary of the recent studies regarding the fermentation of fruit byproducts and how their antioxidant activity is affected during this process.

Dietary Protective Potential of Fucoxanthin as an Active Food Component on Neurological Disorders.

The prevalence of neurodegenerative, cerebrovascular, and psychiatric diseases and other neurological disorders has increased dramatically worldwide. Fucoxanthin is an algal pigment with many biological functions, and there is rising evidence that fucoxanthin plays a preventive and therapeutic role in neurological disorders. This review focuses on the metabolism, bioavailability, and blood-brain barrier penetration of fucoxanthin. Furthermore, the neuroprotective potential of fucoxanthin in neurodegenerative diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, and psychiatric diseases as well as other neurological disorders such as epilepsy, neuropathic pain, and brain tumors by acting on multiple targets will be summarized. The multiple targets include regulating apoptosis, reducing oxidative stress, activating the autophagy pathway, inhibiting Aß aggregation, improving dopamine secretion, reducing α-synuclein aggregation, attenuating neuroinflammation, modulating gut microbiota, and activating brain-derived neurotrophic factor, etc. Additionally, we look forward to brain-targeted oral transport systems due to the low bioavailability and blood-brain barrier permeability of fucoxanthin. We also propose exploring the systemic mechanisms of fucoxanthin metabolism and transport through the gut-brain process and envision new therapeutic targets for fucoxanthin to act on the central nervous system. Finally, we propose dietary fucoxanthin delivery interventions to achieve preventive effects on neurological disorders. This review provides a reference for the application of fucoxanthin in the neural field.

Enhancing the stability, BBB permeability and neuroprotective activity of verbascoside in vitro using lipid nanocapsules in combination with menthol.

Verbascoside (VER) shows promising neuroprotective activity. However, the instability and low permeability in crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) greatly hinder its application. In the present study, verbascoside was encapsulated into lipid nanocapsules (LNC) by reverse micelle (RM) to increase its stability. Besides, we used VER-RM-LNC combined with an envoy drug, menthol, to improve its BBB permeability and neuroprotective activity. VER-RM-LNC was prepared by the phase inversion temperature method, resulting in an encapsulation efficiency of nearly 85 %. The formulated VER-RM-LNC was stable for 6 months at 4 °C. VER encapsulated into LNC possessed enhanced stability and a reduced release profile. Menthol increased the cellular uptake and the permeability of VER-RM-LNC in the BBB model in vitro. In addition, the improved neuroprotective activity of VER through incubation with menthol and VER-RM-LNC was verified in the neurotoxic human brain microvascular endothelial cells model induced by Aß25-35.

Sophorolipid-based microemulsion delivery system: Multifaceted enhancement of physicochemical properties of xanthohumol.

Xanthohumol (XN) has numerous compelling physiological activities, but the poor solubility and stability severely limit its utilization. Therefore, a microemulsion (ME) delivery system based on biosurfactant sophorolipids (SLs) was established and its improvement on physicochemical properties of XN was investigated. The results showed that the systems increased the solubility of XN by about 4000 times, and its half-life during storage was extended to over 150 days. Partial replacement of Tween 80 with SL did not greatly affect their ability to form O/W subregions (in the high aqueous phase), but further improved the solubilization efficiency, storage stability, and antioxidant properties of XN. In vitro models revealed the release profile of XN from the systems followed non-Fickian diffusion, and the ME structure markedly strengthened its digestive stability and bioaccessibility. These results indicated that SL-based ME systems had great potential as a green solubilization and delivery method for XN and other hydrophobic drugs.

Eucommia ulmoides male flower as a remarkable edible floral resource exerts lifespan/healthspan-promoting effects on Caenorhabditis elegans.

Natural products, especially phytochemicals, can effectively improve the health of various model organisms and ultimately prolong their lifespan. As an emerging resource of plant-based food, edible flowers have potential anti-aging effects. Here, we showed that twelve out of 30 drug-food homologous flowers' extracts significantly extended the lifespan of C. elegans, and the Eucommia ulmoides male flower was screened out by comparing centrally. The lifespan of C. elegans increased by 18.61% under the treatment of 100 µg mL-1 floral extract (EUFE). Interestingly, this effect was attenuated when EUFE was administered late or at higher concentrations. Significantly, EUFE improved health indicators that decline with aging including pharyngeal pumping, mobility, muscle morphology, and lipofuscin accumulation. EUFE also enhanced the resistance of C. elegans to oxidative/heat stress. The longevity-extending effect of EUFE was dependent on transcription factor DAF-16 and mitochondrial function. Moreover, EUFE triggered the nuclear translocation of DAF-16 and promoted downstream LGG-1 and SOD3 protein expression. In body-wall muscles, EUFE stimulated mitochondrial fission and mitophagy to mitigate age-related mitochondrial impairments. The transcriptional checkpoints of daf-16, drp-1, eat-3, lgg-1, and dct-1 further showed that EUFE regulated DAF-16 signaling and mitochondrial homeostasis. Finally, the interpretation of the EUFE components by correlation analysis, UHPLC-QE-MS, and verification experiments showed that aucubin, geniposide, and asperuloside are the main active compounds. We revealed the excellent lifespan/healthspan-promoting efficacy of EUFE and highlighted that edible flowers are worthy of further investigation as anti-aging dietary resources. Meanwhile, related mechanisms enriched the hypothesis that mitochondria might be involved in the healthspan modulation of longevity pathways.

The gut microbiota-artery axis: A bridge between dietary lipids and atherosclerosis?

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is one of the major leading global causes of death. Growing evidence has demonstrated that gut microbiota (GM) and its metabolites play a pivotal role in the onset and progression of atherosclerosis (AS), now known as GM-artery axis. There are interactions between dietary lipids and GM, which ultimately affect GM and its metabolites. Given these two aspects, the GM-artery axis may play a mediating role between dietary lipids and AS. Diets rich in saturated fatty acids (SFAs), omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6 PUFAs), industrial trans fatty acids (TFAs), and cholesterol can increase the levels of atherogenic microbes and metabolites, whereas monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), ruminant TFAs, and phytosterols (PS) can increase the levels of antiatherogenic microbes and metabolites. Actually, dietary phosphatidylcholine (PC), sphingomyelin (SM), and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) have been demonstrated to affect AS via the GM-artery axis. Therefore, that GM-artery axis acts as a communication bridge between dietary lipids and AS. Herein, we will describe the molecular mechanism of GM-artery axis in AS and discuss the complex interactions between dietary lipids and GM. In particular, we will highlight the evidence and potential mechanisms of dietary lipids affecting AS via GM-artery axis.

Coarse cereals modulating chronic low-grade inflammation: review.

Chronic low-grade inflammation (CLGI) is closely associated with various chronic diseases. Researchers have paid attention to the comprehensive application and development of food materials with potential anti-inflammatory activity. Owing to their abundant nutrients and biological activities, coarse cereals have emerged as an important component of human diet. Increasing evidence has revealed their potential protective effects against CLGI in chronic conditions. However, this property has not been systematically discussed and summarized. In the present work, numerous published reports were reviewed to systematically analyze and summarize the protective effects of coarse cereals and their main active ingredients against CLGI. Their current utilization state was investigated. The future prospects, such as the synergistic effects among the active compounds in coarse cereals and the biomarker signatures of CLGI, were also discussed. Coarse cereals show promise as food diet resources for preventing CLGI in diseased individuals. Their active ingredients, including ß-glucan, resistant starch, arabinoxylan, phenolic acids, flavonoids, phytosterols and lignans, function against CLGI through multiple possible intracellular signaling pathways and immunomodulatory effects. Therefore, coarse cereals play a crucial role in the food industry due to their health effects on chronic diseases and are worthy of further development for possible application in modulating chronic inflammation.